Pathogenic biofilms as triggers of recurrent vaginitis and cystitis

This paper focuses on biofilms and their role in chronic infectious diseases and human health. Pathogenic biofilms can be intracellular and extracellular. They interact with host’s cells at different levels of aggressiveness and complexity.
Pathogenic biofilms are the neglected etiology of recurrences in various medical fields, including cardiology, pneumology otorhinolaryngology,  and urogynecology. The indiscriminate use of antibiotics has caused a dramatic escalation of microbial aggression and antibiotic resistance, linked to pathogenic biofilms also in urology and gynecology. As a consequence, new diagnostic and therapeutic challenges are emerging in the clinical practice.